Introduction
Paul utilizes the term δικαιοσυνη more prolifically than any other New Testament writer. The term is translated most commonly in English Bibles as “righteousness” and in a few instances as “justice.” Paul’s understanding of the term is best illustrated in his epistle to the Roman church. In Romans, Paul discusses righteousness as the sole property of God, not of humans. Elect individuals are granted God’s righteousness only through faith in Christ’s work on the cross.
Righteousness is accorded to the believer through what most Protestant theologians call the forensic act of justification; justification begins at the new birth. Believers are not simply to consider their righteous standing as a right, but they are commanded to be just and righteous in all their actions.
Terminology and Historical Usage
The term most often used by New Testament writers to describe what English translators have rendered as “righteousness,” or less commonly, “justice,” (both terms essentially mean “a quality or state of being . . . upright, in the right . . . in conformity with a standard or in a state of acceptability to God.”[1]) is δικαιοσυνη.
Greco-Roman Usage
The ancient Greeks understood the term δικαιοσυνη as a virtue referring generally to conformity to standards (observance of law and fulfillment of duty[2]). The term is most closely related to dikh (law), but is applied to ethical and especially religious thinking as well. Righteousness/justice was thought of as an “ideal or absolute ethical norm”[3] by which behavior could be measured.
Old Testament Usage
Old Testament writers used qedec (generally translated as “righteousness”) primarily in terms of God’s covenantal rule. Thus, righteousness is related to relationship with others; it is not a characteristic which an individual possesses on his or her own. The concept includes both forensic and saving elements.[4] The term is used, especially in the Psalms and Isaiah,[5] in reference to God’s saving action (i.e., Ps. 7:9-10; 50:6; Isa. 41:10; 54:14, 17). Thus, God is “righteous” when he fulfills the obligations he placed himself under in becoming the God of Israel (e.g., his covenantal faithfulness). Man is characterized by qedec when he observes the will of God through the law and acts according to what is proper or upright (i.e., Deut. 16:29).[6]
New Testament Usage
The non-Pauline New Testament writings primarily use δικαιοσυνη as referring to just judgment and rule (generally as retributive justice: i.e., Acts 17:31; Rev. 19:11) or right conduct before God (i.e., Matt. 3:15; John 21:32; 1 Pet. 2:24; Heb. 7:2). Paul’s use of the term δικαιοσυνη is generally in the context of the saving work of Jesus on the cross (e.g., pertaining to human justification in light of God’s righteousness). Approximately 45% of all the uses of this term and words utilizing its root occur in Pauline writings; half of these occur in the epistle to the Romans. Paul’s use of δικαιοσυνη is best understood in light of Old Testament teachings, yet it cannot be completely described without its unique New Testament application, primarily in the epistle to the Romans (the focus for this paper).
Paul’s Use of δικαιοσυνη in Romans
Paul’s use of δικαιοσυνη is especially apparent in the epistle to the Romans, although he uses it elsewhere.[7] Each of the following paragraphs contains an exegesis of the pertinent passage(s) in Romans (the Authorized Version is used) and a brief description of Paul’s use of the term δικαιοσυνη.
Romans 1:17
17 For therein is the righteousness of God revealed from faith to faith: as it is written, the just shall live by faith.
Paul here refers to righteousness either of God’s action or his attitude. Both the subjective and objective meanings exist; God provides his righteousness to those who believe by faith. Whether this righteousness is imputed or imparted is a matter of controversy, especially between Roman Catholics and Protestants. However, in light of the context of God’s covenantal offer to weak humans, the answer is most likely both.
Romans 3:5
5 But if our unrighteousness commend the righteousness of God, what shall we say? Is God unrighteous who taketh vengeance? (I speak as a man)
Paul uses the “righteousness of God” in a covenantal sense. Men’s sins bring out more sharply the righteousness of God, thus God has acted favorably with his people despite their failure to respond as he would want. In the context of Paul’s pericope, he sees “our unrighteousness” as pertaining to all of humankind, not only the Jew. God’s righteousness is available to all.
Romans 3:21-22, 25-26
21 But now the righteousness of God without the law is manifested, being witnessed by the law and the prophets;
22 Even the righteousness of God which is by faith of Jesus Christ unto all and upon all them that believe: for there is no difference:
25 Whom God hath set forth to be a propitiation through faith in his blood, to declare his righteousness for the remission of sins that are past, through the forbearance of God;
26 To declare, I say, at this time his righteousness: that he might be just, and the justifier of him which believeth in Jesus.
God’s righteousness is offered to “all them that believe” through the sacrifice of Jesus. On one hand, Paul states that this righteousness is apart from or “without” the law, yet it is “witnessed by the law and prophets.” The juxtaposition of these two phrases would be surprising to the Jews; under the older covenant, God’s righteousness is closely related to the law. Here Paul speaks of the transition in salvation history from a narrow understanding of God’s relationship with Israel alone and a salvation history which embraces the Gentile as well as the Jew.
Romans 4:3, 5, 6, 9, 11, 13, 22
3 For what saith the scripture? Abraham believed God, and it was counted unto him for righteousness.
5 But to him that worketh not, but believeth on him that justifieth the ungodly, his faith is counted for righteousness.
6 Even as David also describeth the blessedness of the man, unto whom God imputeth righteousness without works,
9 Cometh this blessedness then upon the circumcision only, or upon the uncircumcision also? for we say that faith was reckoned to Abraham for righteousness.
11 And he received the sign of circumcision, a seal of the righteousness of the faith which he had yet being uncircumcised: that he might be the father of all them that believe, though they be not circumcised; that righteousness might be imputed unto them also:
13 For the promise, that he should be the heir of the world, was not to Abraham, or to his seed, through the law, but through the righteousness of faith.
22 And therefore it was imputed to him for righteousness.
Paul links the ideas of righteousness and faith in this pericope. Faith is presented here as an antithesis to works, but Paul’s contemporaries would have held a view of interdependency between the two. Paul’s point is that God provides his righteousness apart from works; it is by faith that even Abraham was declared righteous, and that before circumcision. Thus, God accepts Gentiles fully by their faith, even though they are uncircumcised.
Romans 5:17, 21
17 For if by one man’s offence death reigned by one; much more they which receive abundance of grace and of the gift of righteousness shall reign in life by one, Jesus Christ.
21 That as sin hath reigned unto death, even so might grace reign through righteousness unto eternal life by Jesus Christ our Lord.
Paul identifies God’s righteousness as a grace or gift to those who accept him by faith (e.g., enter into a relationship with him). This grace is “abundantly” given unto “eternal life.”
Romans 6:13, 16, 18-20
13 Neither yield ye your members as instruments of unrighteousness unto sin: but yield yourselves unto God, as those that are alive from the dead, and your members as instruments of righteousness unto God.
16 Know ye not, that to whom ye yield yourselves servants to obey, his servants ye are to whom ye obey; whether of sin unto death, or of obedience unto righteousness?
18 Being then made free from sin, ye became the servants of righteousness.
19 I speak after the manner of men because of the infirmity of your flesh: for as ye have yielded your members servants to uncleanness and to iniquity unto iniquity; even so now yield your members servants to righteousness unto holiness.
20 For when ye were the servants of sin, ye were free from righteousness.
Paul’s use of δικαιοσυνη transitions from man’s status before God (as a state of being) in the first part of Romans to the life he lives (e.g., what man does with his righteous status) in chapter six. Here Paul discusses the implications for the righteous Christian life. Righteousness is not something believers control. Righteousness is that by which they are to be controlled; the power of God in whose kingdom they serve.
Paul’s presentation of the two alternatives, sin and righteousness, does not allow for a middle ground. Individuals can never be free to set their own standards; they must either be slaves to sin or slaves to righteousness. Since this situation exists, it is a moot point to object that when one becomes a believer, he is simply substituting one form of slavery for another; no alternative exists!
Romans 8:10
10 And if Christ be in you, the body is dead because of sin; but the Spirit is life because of righteousness.
An older rendering of this verse (which has been retained in a few modern versions, NIV, NEB, NJB, RSV) translates Spirit as the human spirit. This view has been declared a misunderstanding by others who say that pneuma is the Holy Spirit,[8] since man’s spirit cannot “be life.” Consistent with the context, the Spirit is that which provides life for the one who has already been given God’s righteousness.
Romans 9:28, 30, 31
28 For he will finish the work, and cut it short in righteousness: because a short work will the Lord make upon the earth.
30 What shall we say then? That the Gentiles, which followed not after righteousness, have attained to righteousness, even the righteousness which is of faith.
31 But Israel, which followed after the law of righteousness, hath not attained to the law of righteousness.
Paul draws a comparison between the two groups. The Gentiles have not sought righteousness, yet have obtained it by faith. Israel, who sought after righteousness as a “law,” through their own works, have not obtained it. Paul’s emphasis here, as earlier in the epistle, is the fact that God alone is righteous, and his righteousness is granted to believers by faith alone. When believers (or anyone else) attempt to “own” righteousness as a reward of what they do, they have missed the mark. This does not preclude righteous living as a duty; believers are, however, not declared righteous for what they do.
Romans 10:3-6, 10
3 For they being ignorant of God’s righteousness, and going about to establish their own righteousness, have not submitted themselves unto the righteousness of God.
4 For Christ is the end of the law for righteousness to every one that believeth.
5 For Moses describeth the righteousness which is of the law, That the man which doeth those things shall live by them.
6 But the righteousness which is of faith speaketh on this wise, Say not in thine heart, Who shall ascend into heaven? (that is, to bring Christ down from above:)
10 For with the heart man believeth unto righteousness; and with the mouth confession is made unto salvation.
Paul affirms the original intent of the law of Moses: to bring men to an understanding of their need for God’s righteousness, a righteousness which is received only by faith in Christ. According to one commentator, “Israel’s covenant relation to God and reliance on law keeping do not add up to salvation.”[9] Christ and his righteousness is Israel’s greatest need.
Romans 14:17
17 For the kingdom of God is not meat and drink; but righteousness, and peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost.
The reference to the kingdom of God is rare in Pauline writings. Here he describes the kingdom as “a way of characterizing Christian existence and conduct.”[10] The existence of the kingdom means the putting away of foolish arguments and the application of the righteous life believers have been granted through their faith in Christ.
Summary
Paul’s use of δικαιοσυνη in chapters one through five and eight through ten of Romans revolves around how man is justified (righteous) before God. In chapters six and fourteen, Paul treats the topic of applying righteousness/justice as a matter of ethical conduct. Thus, as a believer understands what God has done for him, he will be encouraged to act righteously and justly toward his fellow man. This encouragement is not simply theoretical; it is practical.
Several key points can be elicited from Paul’s use of δικαιοσυνη in the epistle to the Roman church. First, righteousness is never possessed by any created being. God himself is the only possessor of righteousness. Man can, however, be given righteousness by God (either imparted or imputed, depending on theological bias), and can be thought of as righteous.
Second, righteousness can only be attained by faith in Christ (Rom. 1:17; 3:21; 4:1-22; 10:3-6); it is effectively a gift of God (Rom. 5:17). The law as a promoter of good deeds is not effective as a means to righteousness; faith has always been the only means of obtaining the righteousness/justice of God.
Third, God’s righteousness is available to all (Rom. 3:5), not just a select group of people (e.g., Israel; cf. Rom. 9:28-31). One of Paul’s primary thrusts is his inclusion of the Gentiles in his soteriology. His case is made plain when he discusses Abraham in Romans 4:3-22. Abraham is the father of all the uncircumcised who believe by faith.
Fourth, righteousness is an active product of the believer’s position as a servant of the kingdom of God. Righteousness is not something believers can control. Righteousness is that by which they are to be controlled; the power of God to act justly (Rom. 6:13-20).
Fifth, the Spirit is that which provides life for the one who has already been given God’s righteousness (Rom. 8:10). Believers can expect the Spirit’s help in living out a righteous life before God.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dunn, James D. G.. Word Biblical Commentary. David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker, Gen. Eds.. Vol. 38. Dallas: Word Books, 1988.
Fitzmyer, Joseph A. The Anchor Bible. Romans. William F. Albright and David N. Freedman, Gen Eds. New York: Doubleday, 1993.
Freedman, David N., Gen. Ed.. The Anchor Bible Dictionary. Vol. 5. New York: Doubleday, 1992.
Gaebelein, Frank E., Gen. Ed.. The Expositor’s Bible Commentary. Vol. 10. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1976.
Goodrick, Edward W. and John R. Kohlenberger III. The NIV Exhaustive Concordance. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1990.
Kittel, Gerhard, Ed.. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Transl. Geoffrey W. Bromiley. Vol. 2. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1964.
[1] David N. Freedman, Gen. Ed., The Anchor Bible Dictionary, Vol. 5, (New York: Doubleday, 1992),
p. 746.
[2] Gerhard Kittel, Ed., Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, Transl. Geoffrey W. Bromiley,
Vol. 2, (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1964), p. 192.
[3] James D. G. Dunn, Word Biblical Commentary, David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker, Gen. Eds., Vol. 38, (Dallas, TX: Word Books, 1988), p.40.
[4] Kittel, p. 195.
[5] Dunn, p. 41.
[6] Freedman, p. 736.
[7] Paul uses the noun form in the following locations: Rom 1:17; 3:5, 21-22, 25-26; 4:3, 5, 6, 9 ,11, 13, 22; 5:17, 21; 6:13, 16, 18-20; 8:10; 9:28, 30, 31; 10:3-6, 10; 14:17; 1 Cor. 1:30; 2 Cor. 3:9; 5:21; 6:7, 14; 9:9-10; 11:15; Gal. 2:21; 3:6, 21; 5:5; Eph. 4:24; 5:9; 6:14; Phil. 1:11; 3:6, 9; 1 Tim. 6:11; 2 Tim 2:22; 3:16; 4:8; Titus 3:5.
[8] Frank E. Gaebelein, Gen. Ed., The Expositor’s Bible Commentary, Vol. 10, (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1976), p. 90; Dunn, pp. 431-432.
[9] Gaebelein, p. 110.
[10] Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Anchor Bible. Romans. William F. Albright and David N. Freedman, Gen Eds. (New York: Doubleday, 1993), p. 697.
